1848 — Seneca Falls Declaration
The 'Declaration of Sentiments' modeled on the Declaration of Independence; began the 72-year campaign for women's suffrage.
1869 — Arabella Mansfield admitted to the bar
First woman admitted to the bar in the United States (Iowa). Made possible by a state statute — not by any right recognized at common law.
1879 — Belva Lockwood
First woman to argue before the U.S. Supreme Court.
1920 — 19th Amendment
Women's right to vote — after 72 years of organizing from Seneca Falls.
1931 — Sadie T.M. Alexander
First Black woman to earn a PhD in economics in the US and the first Black woman to graduate from Penn Law and be admitted to the Pennsylvania bar. Her work sits at the intersection of race, gender, and economic rights, connecting directly to WHM's economic-justice themes.
1963 — Equal Pay Act
Prohibits wage differentials based on sex for substantially equal work performed under similar conditions. Exceptions historically limited its reach.
1964 — Title VII (Civil Rights Act)
Prohibits employment discrimination based on sex (among other protected characteristics). Interpreted by SCOTUS in Bostock (2020) to cover sexual orientation and gender identity.
1971 — Reed v. Reed
First SCOTUS application of Equal Protection to sex discrimination: Idaho statute preferring male estate administrators over female was struck. Justice Burger majority; Ruth Bader Ginsburg briefed the case for the ACLU Women's Rights Project (her first SCOTUS brief).
1972 — Title IX
Prohibits sex discrimination in educational programs receiving federal funding. See Section 5 for current Title IX status.
1973 — Frontiero v. Richardson
8-1: federal law requiring male military members to prove their spouses' financial dependence (while female members got automatic benefits for husbands) was unconstitutional. Brennan plurality applied strict scrutiny to sex; Powell plurality declined. The case RBG argued for the ACLU that came closest to strict scrutiny before Craig v. Boren (1976) established intermediate scrutiny.
1978 — Pregnancy Discrimination Act
Added pregnancy to Title VII's prohibitions. Led directly to the 2022 PWFA.
1981 — Sandra Day O'Connor
First woman on the U.S. Supreme Court (d. December 1, 2023). Her legacy: the swing vote on abortion (Planned Parenthood v. Casey, 1992), affirmative action (Grutter, 2003), and detainee rights.
1994 — VAWA
Violence Against Women Act; reauthorized 2022.
1996 — United States v. Virginia (VMI case)
7-1, Ginsburg: Virginia Military Institute's male-only admissions policy violated Equal Protection. Required states to have an 'exceedingly persuasive justification' for sex classifications.
2009 — Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act
First bill signed by President Obama. Resets the 180-day filing clock for pay discrimination claims with each new discriminatory paycheck — overruling SCOTUS's Ledbetter v. Goodyear (2007) decision.
2022 — Justice Ketanji Brown Jackson confirmed
First Black woman on the U.S. Supreme Court. Harvard AB 1992, Harvard Law 1996. Former Public Defender.
2022 — Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization
6-3, Alito: Overruled Roe v. Wade (1973) and Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992). Returned abortion regulation to the states.
2022 — PWFA signed (eff. June 18, 2024)
Pregnant Workers Fairness Act — see Section 5.